1.   Colliding Particles - Baryons, Mesons and Quarks
2.   Building Elements - Protons, Neutrons and the Nucleus
3.   Energy Levels - Electron structure around the Nucleus
4.   Bonding - Elements, Electrons and Molecules
5.   Hydrocarbons and Organic Molecules
6.   Electromagnetic Radiation - Photons
7.   Learn more

2.   Building Elements - Protons, Neutrons and the Nucleus Layers of protons and neutrons form elements with the number of protons determining the charge and most of the properties of the element. Stability of the layered structures are a function of charge and mass where for example, Helium5 has too much mass for its charge and Lithium5 has too much charge for its mass. The Neutron The Proton Element cutout side view Hydrogen1 Hydrogen2 Hydrogen3 Helium3 Helium4 Helium5 Lithium5 Lithium6 Lithium7 Isotopes of the elements are held together through nucleon binding energy and spin alignment. Neutron and proton interlocking spin produces higher or lower strength bonds depending on how the other neutrons and protons are interlocked. For example, the bond strength for one proton and one neutron (Deuterium or Hydrogen2) is about 1.1 MeV and forms a spin 1 particle (three states). Helium4 bond strength is almost 30 MeV (over 7 MeV per nucleon) and forms a spin 0 particle. Two protons separated by a neutron couple and two neutrons separated by a proton couple. The total angular momentum of a nucleus is called "nuclear spin". Associated with each nuclear spin is a nuclear magnetic moment which produce the magnetic interactions. The coupled protons and neutrons do not contribute to spin. Spin Alignment

3.   Energy Levels - Electron structure around the Nucleus Falling Electron Copper Emission The nucleus and first four electrons (click to view - 1S and 2S shells) Left alone, an electron falling into a proton, may hit the shell with enough kinetic energy to emit a photon, equal to the difference of energy inside and outside the nucleus. This photon is called the K-alpha emission and helps to uniquely identify elements. If an electron is substantially turned or accelerated due to coulomb force, it may emit a Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) photon at various wavelengths. If the electron hits the shell with more then the energy difference inside and outside the shell, two photons may be emitted in opposite directions. The sum of the two photon energies must equal the energy difference. The emission of the photon results in the equivalent loss of the electrons kinetic energy (slows down), often trapping the electron inside the nucleus. This area is called the 1S shell and holds at most 2 electrons with opposite spins. If an electron already exists inside the nucleon, then the electron drops to an even lower energy and emits a photon called the K-beta photon. The energy of the photon emitted and the ionization energy holding the electron to the proton is calculated using Bohr, Ryberg and Moseley laws. Only two electrons fit within this first energy level called the 1S level. In fact, the two electrons due to their repulsion and spin, will align themselves with the spin of the proton on opposite sides, forcing the magnetic charge of the electrons to be facing each other. Hydrogen energy levels Lyman, Balmer and Paschen Atomic Orbitals S, P and D series A third electron can enter this region due to its own kinetic energy and will emit a slightly higher energy photon, in fact, this photon makes up the third in the "Lyman" series of emissions. Additional energy levels are created through the interation of the nucleus and electrons, all of which are in motion.

4.   Bonding - Elements, Electrons and Molecules Spin and Magnetic layout of Hydrogen & Bonded Hydrogen Bonding between elements occurs when an electron, trapped in an energy level of one element, gets trapped in an energy level of another element, thereby binding the two elements together. Hydrogen consists of a proton and an electron and is neutral in charge. Although neutral, the proton acting as a shell of charge with the electron close to the edge of the shell, will attract other neutral hydrogen atoms until one electron (or perhaps 2 in the ortho form) is trapped in both hydrogen shells binding them together. The second element, helium, consists of two protons, for a charge of plus two. Helium is very stable with two electrons in the first shell. This makes the first shell full and it will not accept another electron. Some compounds of helium will develop, for example He²+ or HeH+, but only where there is a shortage of electrons, as in a plasma. Lithium has three protons with the third electron attracted to the nucleus, but repelled by the two electrons in the first shell. Lithium atoms can pair together, to form dilithium, where a pair of electrons with opposite spin reside between the two atoms. Lithium binds with itself to form a cubic body centered metal. Lithium and hydrogen bind in a cubic structure. Beryllium has four protons and binds into a strong hexagonal close packed structure. Beryllium also binds with hydrogen to form beryllium hydride (BeH2). Boron with five protons does not form an easy to define grid. As a solid it exists mostly in a icosahedron structure of 12 boron atoms. These icosahedrons can be bound together in various different forms. It also exists as a gas combined with hydrogen called diborane (B2H6) with two of the hydrogen atoms between the two boron nucleons.

Simple hydrocarbons showing outer shells and inner structure Organic Molecules 5.   Hydrocarbons and Organic Molecules Carbon & Methane Nitrogen & Ammonia Oxygen & Water Carbon has six protons and together with the electron shells, form a very stable structure that easily binds with other carbon nucleons and hydrogen to form hydrocarbons. In addition to hydrocarbons, carbon binds with itself in a diamond, graphic or graphene sheet solids. The next two elements, nitrogen and oxygen, together with the hydrocarbons build the basic building blocks of life. Carbon has four bonding spots, nitrogen has three and oxygen has two, allowing for the construction of large molecular structures. Hydrocarbons consist of long chains of carbon and hydrogen where two of the bonds are for the hydrogen chain and some hold hydrogen to each carbon. Alcohols have a single bonded oxygen attached together with a companion hydrogen. Sugars integrate the oxygen into a carbon loop with two single bonds. Acids contain the alcohol bond together with a double bonded oxygen, and finally, the amino acids include a strategically placed nitrogen just beside the acid structure. The lipids form natural cell walls and the amino acids are strung together to form peptides, proteins and eventually, cells themselves, both plant and animal.

6.   Electromagnetic Radiation - Photons Photons are in a class of particles called bosons. A photon travels at the speed of light in a specific direction and at a specific energy. Animated physics adds in phase, modelled as a periodic expansion in its direction of travel, up to one-half its wave length in size then down to very tiny. Photon polarization is modelled as having left or right spin, or being linear. Linear photons possess a "wobble" that started with the precession of the electron where the photon energy originated. Tracking a single photon reveals the periodic nature that varies between particle like and wave like. A number of photons in a coherent state trapped in a cavity display a static "wavelike" nature. If suddenly one side of the laser is opened and pointed it at a double slit experiment, these photons (one at a time) will display the proper interference pattern as they will diffract around edges the exact way a wave would since the calculations are exactly the same. Electrons trapped in this kind of cavity will be denser between wave lines, but will vary on a periodic basis in tune with the photons.

7.   Learn more Animated Physics software allows you to model any grid size using many types of common objects. Animations are built to a specific timescale and forces such as charge and gravity can be applied to the objects. The animations are then run to see the results.